The Road of Life free essay sample

In his poem, Traveling through the Dark, William Stafford presents the reader with the difficulty of one mans choice. Immediately, the scene is set, with the driver, who is traveling through the dark on a treacherous winding road when suddenly he sees a dead deer in the road. Right away, the speaker realizes what he must do: It is usually best to roll them into the canyon. The reader can recognize that this is not a new situation for the speaker and he makes it clear that to leave the deer lying in the road could cause an unsuspecting car to swerve and go toppling into the canyon, which might make more dead. The speaker then continues to report the details of what he did next: he got out of the car, which he parked Just ahead of the deer carcass, and stumbled back of the car. He examines the deer and finds that she has stiffened already, almost cold. We will write a custom essay sample on The Road of Life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page But as he drags her body over to the lip of the canyon, he notices that she was large in the belly. It appears that the doe is pregnant because when he felt her side it was warm. The baby was still alive. This turn of events causes the speaker to reconsider. Pushing a dead deer off the side of the cliff is one thing, but a deer whose baby is alive is different. He knows that if he ushes the dead doe over the cliff, he is killing the unborn baby, so beside that mountain road [he] hesitated. Although a car could come speeding around the turn at any time, the situation catches the speaker off guard and makes him wonder how could he Just heartlessly toss away this innocent life? The speaker seems to be contemplating two options. He could try to deliver the baby to save its life, which he would prefer to do. But he quickly realizes that this option is not a realistic one at all. He couldnt do a surgery like this on such a dark road and be able to keep the baby alive. The speaker thinks hard about what to do. He calls his hesitation my only swerving, because when he realized that the doe was pregnant, his decision to toss it over was reconsidered. But he finally comes to the conclusion that he has no choice but to try to save other humans before its too late so he pushed her over the edge into the river. Who is it best for, the deer or man? Is human life more important than animal life? These are questions that arise when reading the poem and are questions that the speaker must answer before the night is over. Through his use of metaphor, symbolism, and personification, Stafford alludes to the difficult decisions that occur long the road of life, especially death, and the consequences that are a result from those decisions. With the use of these devices, Stafford shows the theme of death as a consequence of these decisions and reveals the conflict between humans and nature. The poem uses four four-line stanzas and a concluding two-line verse. It is a narrative description of the speakers actions during the darkness. There are no regular rhyme schemes and its irregular in meter. But Stafford seemed to be playing with rhymes by using near rhymes like road and dead; killing and belly; waiting and hesitated; engine and listen; swerving and river. Stafford may be doing this so the poem doesnt have a definite structure, giving it a more relaxed feeling when reading it. The poem seems to be set in a conversation style, where the speaker is talking out loud, reliving the event that occurred that night. To illustrate the theme of death, Stafford presents a metaphor relating the literal road to the road Wilson River road. Also, the reader gets the sense that the road is dark and isolated. The only lit section of this road is the stretch that the speaker is travelling n. Symbolically, this represents the speakers current life. The road that has already been traveled symbolizes his past. The speaker may be unable to see his past because of the darkness. He also literally cant see farther ahead, only as far as the headlights will allow, because of the darkness. This sy mbolizes how the future in our lives is yet to be discovered. Staffords symbolic description of the road is comparable toa mans trip along the path of life. In this poem though, Stafford reveals conflicts with stopping along the path of life, not travelling along it. The eceased deer is what forces the speaker to stop along the road, but death in life is what causes humans to stop along their path and take time to make decisions. Stafford also uses symbolism of the deer, canyon, and river to reinforce his theme. The deer is seen as a roadblock which must be dealt with before the speaker can continue on his trip. He cant simply push death to the side of the road as the reader sees when he has a hard time making up his mind. But the deer would Just decay if it were left there. Instead, as Stafford states in the first stanza, it is usually best to oll them into the canyon. Stafford shows the way to deal with this is to discard of it immediately and not to hesitate at all. This may be true for the safety of other cars and people, but symbolically the reader sees it is necessary to deal with this problem so one can continue on their path in life. The canyons with the river at the bottom could symbolically represent a way to wash all our problems away. By Just pushing the deer over the edge and not hesitating, one is getting rid of this problem without letting these troubles hold them back. Another way the decisions made when topping along the road of life are symbolized is through Staffords use of language. The word swerving is used twice in the poem. When explaining why the man should move the deer, Stafford writes, to swerve might make more dead. This also could symbolically refer to a swerve in Judgment. If the speaker makes a swerve in his decision, it has consequences which may cause problems or even death.

Frank Lloyd Wright Essays (3051 words) - Modernist Architects

Frank Lloyd Wright Essays (3051 words) - Modernist Architects Frank Lloyd Wright NOTE: Received an A with some corrections. If your professor is one who checks bibliography's be careful with mine. Art History 5 December 2000 Frank Lloyd Wright American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright is considered the pioneer in modern style and one of the greatest figures in twentieth-century architecture (Twombly, 16). According to Frank Lloyd Wright: having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time. It appears that from the beginning, Frank Lloyd Wright was destined by fate, or determination, or by his mothers support, to be one of the most innovative and celebrated architects of the twentieth century. Throughout his life, he designed nearly 900 structures, some 400 of which were actually built. He was principally known for his highly original methods of uniting buildings with their surroundings (Hirsh, 189). Wright was also renowned for initiating new architectural and engineering techniques but was often criticized by the more conventional architects who opposed his new methods (Twombly, 17 - 18). Frank Lincoln Wright (he would later change his middle name to Lloyd) was born on June 8 1867 in Richland Center, Wisconsin, to Anna Lloyd-Jones Wright and William Russell Cary Wright. Anna Lloyd-Jones was a teacher from a large close-knit Welsh family of farmers and ministers. His mother and her family would have a tremendous influence on Frank throughout his life. Franks father, William, was a devout Unitarian preacher and musician. The Wright family spent many evenings listening to William read such works as Emerson, Thoreau, and Blake . In 1869 through 1878, the Wright family traveled the country, relocating to Iowa, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, where William held pastorate positions (Taliesin Preservation). His father moved from job to job dragging the family along which often resulted in financial difficulties. In 1878, the Wrights eventually returned to the hills of Wisconsin, close to the strong support of Annas family. Finally, settling back in Wisconsin, William Wright became secretary of the Wisconsin Conference of Unitarians and Independent Societies (Gill, 57). Anna relied heavily upon her family to help rear her children. Frank spent numerous hours helping his uncles in the fields, who taught him the importance of hard work. His aunts and his mother intellectually guided him in education, religion, and nature, which played an important part in forming Franks architectural philosophy. Using Froebels geometric blocks to entertain and educate her son, Anna seems to have struck on the genius and imagination her son possessed. Anna consistently encouraged Frank to achieve great things in the field of Architecture (Gill, 58). In 1885, Frank quit high school and entered the University of Wisconsin at Madison (as a special student). He studied civil engineering because the school did not offer any courses in architecture. No longer working in the fields, Frank worked for the dean of engineering in order to supplement the family income but he was not enthused with his situation and dreamed of going to Chicago (Gill, 74). After two years at the University, Frank left and moved to Chicago. In Chicago, Frank found a job as a draftsman with the major firm headed by Louis Sullivan (Art Through the Ages, 1058 - 1060). Sullivan had a profound influence on Frank and became his mentor in architecture (Twombly, 153). With the industrial age, came a growing suburban population. The firm of Alder and Sullivan concentrated on downtown commercial buildings, whereas Frank accomplished residential contracts. His work soon expanded and he accepted contracts outside the firm. When Sullivan discovered this in 1893, he felt betrayed, accused Frank of a breach of contract, and demanded that Frank discontinue working outside the firm. Rather than drop his night job, Frank walked out on the firm (Gill, 87-88). Frank Lloyd Wright quickly built up a practice in residential design that eventually expanded to include commercial architecture. Through designing a prairie-style home and implementing new techniques and materials, business thrived. He created the philosophy of organic architecture, the central principle of which maintains that the building should develop out of its natural surroundings so that the indoors and

ACT Test Dates 2016-2017

ACT Test Dates 2016-2017 SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips At PrepScholar, we keep track of all the best information to advise you about future test dates. Knowing the registration deadlines and test schedule can help you devise your study plan and stay organized so that you can reach your target score. In this article, I’ll give you the ACT test dates for 2016-2017 and explain the factors to think about when picking your test date. ACT Test Dates for 2016-2017 Here are the test dates, registration deadlines, and anticipated dates for scores to be released. Test Date Deadline Late Deadline Score Release* Sept 10, 2016 Aug 5, 2016 Aug 19, 2016 Sept 19; Oct 3, 2016 Oct 22, 2016 Sept 16, 2016 Sep 30, 2016 Nov 8; Nov 15, 2016 Dec 10, 2016 Nov 4, 2016 Nov 18, 2016 Dec 21, 2016; Jan 4, 2017 Feb , 2017** Jan 13, 2017 Jan 20, 2017 Feb 21; Feb 28, 2017 Apr 8, 2017 Mar 3, 2017 Mar 17, 2017 Apr 26; May 10, 2017 June 10, 2017 May 5, 2017 May 19, 2017 June 21; June 28, 2017 *= Refers to online score release. The first date is when multiple choice scores come out, and the second one is when complete scores are available. **= No February dates are scheduled in New York. How Accurate Is the Table Above? The test dates and registration deadlines come from official ACT sources and have been released. The score release dates are projected based on information from past tests, but generally, scores will come out within a week of the projected dates. Keep in mind that there's some variance in when multiple choice scores come out and not everyone receives them at the same time. How to Choose Your Test Date Here are some of the major factors to consider when selecting your ACT test date: Know Your Deadlines! The most important thing to remember is to take your ACT before any deadlines. If you apply regular decision, the December test in your senior year will be the last test you can take for most colleges. If you apply early, the last test you can take may be in October or November of your senior year. Also, scholarships have deadlines. If you want to obtain any scholarships that consider your ACT score, you’ll need to have your test score before the scholarship deadlines. How Many Times Do You Planto Take the ACT? Most students improve their scores when they retake the ACT, and you want to give yourself an opportunity to take the test multiple times. Generally, we suggest first taking the ACT in the fall of your junior year. Then you can retake it in the spring of your junior year and the fall of your senior year if necessary. How Long Do You Needto Study? When selecting your test date, give yourself enough time to prepare. Get a rough idea of how long you’ll need to study and make sure you’ll be able to effectively prepare before you take the test. If you take both the April and June tests without doing any studying in between, your score probably won’t improve much. Do You Have Conflicts With Any Test Dates? Check to see if you have any potential conflicts on or around any of the ACT test dates. Maybe the February date is during your basketball playoffs and you’ll be too busy to study. Perhaps you want to avoid the June test date because you’ll be focusing on your finals. It may be difficult to find a time when you can fully devote yourself to the ACT, but you should try to pick the best test dates for you. What's Next? If you're studying for the ACT, use free practice tests to help you prepare. Also, find out which schools require you to send all your ACT scores. Finally, if you have any questions about the ACT, you'll want to check out our expert answers to frequently asked questions about the ACT. Want to improve your ACT score by 4+ points? Download our free guide to the top 5 strategies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score dramatically.

The Neurophysiology of Peripheral Neurogenic Pain Essay - 1

The Neurophysiology of Peripheral Neurogenic Pain - Essay Example This study focused on the aspects of peripheral neurogenic pain with regard to its neurophysiology. According to Hecke et al., epidemiology of pain involves the investigation of the distribution, as well as, the causes of pain and ill health and also how this information can be integrated into managing these predicaments. The epidemiology of pain can be addressed through paying much attention onto the widespread and intermittent pain disorders that are commonly experienced by persons in their daily lives. In focusing on the epidemiology of pain, the core question that might arise would be in relation whether the persistence of pain is a result of unremitting or never-ending ailment. The term scale in this aspect denotes that pain may either be bodily, emotional, or mental. Subsequently, individual views or opinions regarding pain also differs (Simpson et al. 90-95). Stewart, in a study to determine the difference in the pain levels between the two genders and based on their ages, conducted a study that recorded a higher frequency of felt pain among women who rated higher levels of painful feelings as compared to men. This factor is attributed to genetic differences between male and female, as well as, the variations in responsibilities that are bestowed upon each gender by the society. The following graph illustrates the differences on frequency or commonness of pain between men and women Seattle Washington. The results as shown are in percentages. In the graph above, the values on the y-axis represent the percentages of age-sex frequency as was conducted between males and females, while the x-axis represents the ages in groups spanning from 18 to over 65 years of age of the respondents. According to Hecke et al., the medical records in that are found in health institutions have shown a higher proportion of women seeking treatment for pain related problems more than males do. The difference in the

ESL Classroom Mgmt Strategies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

ESL Classroom Mgmt Strategies - Research Paper Example For any teacher to be effective in teaching English as a foreign language class management skills are prerequisite. It is an acknowledged fact that classroom management is of critical importance in enhancing the effectiveness of pedagogy since a lack of the same would result to a reduction in cognitive and overall development of the learners. As such effective teaching and learning of English as a second language is dependent upon effective classroom management (Brown 1-12). Classroom management entails the manner of controlling behaviour that would result in disruptions so as to ensure that teaching and learning is maximized. Pedagogical content knowledge entails all of the skills possessed by a teacher which enables them to transmit pedagogical content. This normally includes generic education and subject skills. Subject includes student and teacher based methods and approaches that are employed in the teaching of particular issues. Good examples are the Communicative Language teac hing or the Audio lingual strategy which are exclusive to the teaching of languages. Generic education pedagogy on the other hand includes learner teacher methods and approaches which may be employed in the teaching of any subject. ... sually migrants they may portray behavior which is not normal of the natural born members of the class and hence which would cause disruption (Buchman 143-148). Contrary to public opinion the terms discipline and management are not synonyms of each other. Many people associate discipline with punishment even as it is a means of modifying, correcting and inspiring desired behavior. While discipline is part of management it does not entail all the aspects of management. In addition to discipline management also involves the organization of students, materials, time and space to foster learning. It also entails the approaches and methods employed in order to have the ordered environment for learning and teaching (Bharkhuizen and Gough 453-471). The disciplining of learners in the second language class should be in such a manner that would show care and concern and not victimization (Allison and Rehm 7). Approaches in Classroom Management In classroom management it is important that the teacher employs a particular approach that would ensure he has a proper control over the class. Approaches employed in the management of the classroom include but are not limited to: punishments and rewards, learner teacher relations (Pedder 171-200). The teacher needs top foster compliance in the students by being assertive in the setting up of protocol for instance time of entry into the class, submitting assignments among others. New learners tend to test out the teacher and hence it is important that the teacher set out the protocols that are to be followed from the very beginning of learning (Brynes 472-494). Strategies which are geared towards the inhibition of negative learner behavior such as punishment may not be effective since learners of English as a second language may see this

Noblest Roman of All Essay Example for Free

Noblest Roman of All Essay The noblest Roman of them all, according to Marc Antony, was Brutus one of the conspirators who stabbed Caesar to death. The note of regret here is ironic, to say the least, because Antony raised the army which has destroyed Brutus. Thats what brings me to say Marcus Antonius is in fact the actual Noblest Roman of them all. Brutus and his group of conspirators brutally murdered Caesar, whom Antony was very loyal to. Yet after the conspirators were killed Antony praised Brutus, not curse him as others expected him to. He believed of all the conspirators, only Brutus thought of the common good, and had honest intentions toward the general populace. The rest merely envied Caesars greatness; Brutus thought it a real threat to the Republic. He recognized Brutus as an honest man who was blinded by others with bad intentions. And in my opinion it takes a noble man to recognize another noble man. Marc Antony was not a man of many weaknesses but, if you had to pin one on him, it would have to be that his name wasnt as prestigious as some of his predecessors. Marcus Brutus was a very popular man, because, he was basically Caesars right hand man. Some would argue that No one would know Caesar better than Brutus, but that didnt stop Antony. Even though he wasnt as popular as Marcus Brutus, he somehow swayed the crowd in his favor. One of Marc Antonys greater strengths was his oratory skills. He was a great orator and he used that to his advantage. He had a penchant for superlatives. The noblest Roman of them all directly echoed The most unkindest cut of all . In effect, he paints Brutus, at different times, both as a villain and as a superlative Roman. In both cases, Antony is aware of the rhetorical necessities of the situation. Marc Antony was the noblest roman of all because he risked his life for an already dead man but he approached the beast without flinching. He put aside his fears to stand up for justice. He even paid his respect to one of the conspirators Brutus because even though he commited a heinous crime, Brutus was just confused, and Antony had enough wisdom to realize

History Of Physicians Assistant :: essays research papers fc

The year is 1959, and Mr. Scott has had a migraine headache for the past few weeks and so he drives to the local Potsdam Hospital. The poignant antiseptic smell fills his nostrils as he steps unto the polished hospital floor but what catches his eye is the large number of people waiting in the lounge. Mr. Scott patiently stands behind the long line of people to sign the needed forms to be seen by the physician. An hour and a half passes, and it is finally his turn to see the receptionist. He looks at the woman behind the counter in the bright white uniform and asks, â€Å"Is it always like this?† The woman replies in a weary but irritated tone â€Å"It was not this hectic until Dr. Johnson and Dr. Smith left to specialize in Syracuse.† As Mr. Jones fills out the questionnaire about his insurance, he mutters to him self, â€Å"Boy, they need to do something about this. They should hire more doctors or something." The medical community did do something to off set th e projected decline of physicians. About thirty years ago, a new health care profession was integrated into the medical field to assist physicians to prescreen and handle the routine patient loads. At first, Physician Assistants (PA’s) met some opposition, but later they were accepted as a need and an asset to society. The following history of the physician assistant will show how a crisis caused the development of this profession, and the conditions which created the profession and how the struggles of the PA profession during the 1960’s through the 1970’s ended with the maturity phase of the 1980’s and 1990’s. A crisis caused the development of the PA profession. This problem was the widely held belief that there was a shortage of medically trained personnel , which originated from the 1959 Report of the Surgeon General’s Consultant Group of Medical Education. This report gave three main reasons why an expansion of health care was needed in the United States: 1. There was fear of rapid population growth projections with disproportionate increases of the young and elderly. These two populations statistically and historically utilize more health care than the average populace. 2. There was an increased per capita use of health care facilities. This was spurred by numerous factors. The first was improved living standards that brought higher life expectancy and lower infant mortality.

From a reading of Hardy’s short stories, discuss how Hardy brings out the aspects of Victorian society in ‘The Withered Arm’ and ‘The Son’s Veto’

A6. Thomas Hardy lived during the Victorian period and he loved from 1840-1928. He was a famous novelist and poet but his points were not liked by the people in the year of 1840. Thomas Hardy was known as a Novelist and his stories crossed the modern and Victorian age. Thomas Hardy also lived in the middle class family and was born in Dorset a tiny village in the south west of England. Also, he used the locality of Dorset in his stories. He was the person who felt men were bond servants of chance and that they played an important role on our lives. In both the short stories, ‘The Withered Arm' and ‘The Son's Veto', he used a lot of description which was one of the other reasons why he was so popular. This is because his innate gift of description expressed someone or something in the deepest form which could actually help the reader picture the person or something clearly. First of all in both the short stories, ‘The Withered Arm' and ‘The Son's Veto' we see clearly that marriages could only happen between two people of the same class and that it could only be between social equals and this is one of the aspects that society judged a person on. Also, in both the short stories written by Thomas Hardy the level of your class in society determined the respect one would get. In ‘Withered Arm', the case was that Farmer Lodge was of a lower class, and when he came up in his class in society, he married Gertrude who too was of a high class and was a lady. Here, Farmer Lodge stepped out of his original class and wanted to be exactly look a person of a higher class which is why he left Rhoda Brook who was of the lower class, although she had given birth to a son, and so he decided to start his life as a gentleman. He had also married Gertrude because she was so beautiful, and this was another thing society looked on – the appearance of a person. This is why in the beginning Rhoda Brook sends her son to spy on Farmer Lodge's newly wedded wife which we soon come to recognise as Gertrude. Rhoda Brook thus this because she wants to know if the woman Farmer Lodge has married is good looking and well off which she presumed as the sole reason for leaving her. This is mainly because society's nature was that they graded people for the way they looked, and accordingly, respect would be given to that the person. This can be proven by the quote, ‘And if she seems like a woman who has ever worked for a living, or one that has been always well of, and has never done anything, and shows marks of the lady on her, as I expect she do. ‘ This quote is about Rhoda Brook who is keen to know if Farmer Lodge ha left her for the class distinction. Also in the Victorian society, men married woman who were extremely young which is what Farmer Lodge did exactly. In ‘The Son's Veto', we see almost the same picture but based on the same idea of class distinction. Here, we see Sophy, a parlour maid who is in love with Sam, who is a gardener, and is of the lower class just like Sophy is. Sadly, Sophy, plays the hard to get behaviour which, is so common to Victorian behaviour, and when Sam proposes she stalls, and soon has a fight with him. Then comes along Reverend Twycott, who then notices Sophy as a ‘kitten-like flexuous, tender creature', and then after a series of events soon proposes to Sophy, and since she had fought with Sam, he was out of her mind, and so she agrees. The sad thing was that she did not truly love him, but she had immense respect and awe for him, ‘which almost amounted to veneration'. As the story unfolds, Hardy soon reveals that her trying to step out of her class was a big mistake as she was left unhappy with her life. Reverend Twycott on the other hand, knew that my marrying Sophy, he basically ‘committed social suicide' as society would totally not accept the marriage between to not social equals who were not of the same class. The quote to prove this is ‘their was a marriage-service at the communion rails, which hardly a soul knew of. Though this quote it is quite evident that no marriage guests were invited for the sole reason that society would not accept the idea of them being together, and would reject them which would soon make them outcasts. Also, this was because society would not understand a bit, as they always seemed to put no reason before what seemed like logic to them. In ‘The Withered Arm' , Farmer Lodge could not marry Rhoda Brook even if he wanted to as he too would be made an outcast in the eyes of society as he was no more a lower class just as Rhoda Brook was, but he was of the higher class and could only be with someone of the same class as he was. The irony in both of these stories is that in ‘The Withered Arm', Farmer Lodge truly loved Rhoda Brook, but could not marry her as society did not accept it and so he did not try fighting for their love. Whereas in ‘The Son's Veto', Sophy loved Sam very much and could have married him, but because of the fight between the two of them she chose respect for Reverend Twycott, over the love that Sam was offering her. Farmer Lodge infact, was much lower in class than Reverend Twycott was, and also, Rhoda Brook, Sophy and Sam were of the same class. Sophy in choosing Reverend Twycott as her husband who was of the higher class, over Sam who was of the same class as she was, made a terrible mistake as she soon learns that moving out of your class only brought unhappiness. This is because Sophy was never really happy because when Reverend Twycott died, she was left lonely, and she did not find the joy she had with Sam. This was because with Sam she could afford to be herself, that was a person of a lower class, whereas now in the eyes of society and her husband she had to pretend to be a ‘lady' which was the artificial her. This can be shown by the quote, ‘Sophy the woman was as charming a partner could possess, though Sophy the lady deficiencies. ‘ When ananlysing this quote, it makes a whole lot of sense as the real her that was a person of lower class, was a ‘woman' who was ‘as charming a partner could possess' that was she was a real nice person but in being a ‘lady' she had her ‘deficiencies', that was that although she tried to act like a lady, she never was a perfect one, as she was trying to be something she was not – a ‘lady'. We can also see how Hardy steps up Sophy from ‘woman' that was so pure and gentle, to a ‘lady' that wasn't perfect which in society's eyes was extremely bad. Thus by being with Sam, she could afford to be herself, whereas in the eyes if society she had to be a ‘lady'. Also we can see this through two more quotes: ‘and wither she would have gone back- O how gladly! – even to work in the fields. Through this quote it is quite evident that when she looks on her life in the past and what is now, she does not even mind a single bit and she would be glad to work in the fields, just to get back to the real person she was. The second quote to prove that moving out of one's class rarely brought happiness and satisfaction is, ‘She had occasionally thought of him, and wondered if life in a cottage with him would not have been a happier lot than the life she had accepted. Through this quote, it is quite evident that she feels a great sense of regret as there is great probability that she would have been better off with Sam and a happy life. In way her case is quite understandable as she might not have been accepted by many other people because of the class she was in, and this isolation can be seen in the beginning of the story when Hardy talks of the effort she put in every day to set her hair. This can be better understood by the quote, ‘One could not understand such weavings and coilings being wrought to last intact for a year, or even a calendar month but that they should be all demolished regularly at bedtime, after a single day of permanence, seemed a reckless waste of successful fabrication. ‘ Through this quote we can understand that she put in a great effort to design her hair, and Hardy makes it seem like a great work of art which only lasted till the end of the day. The reason why she did this can be seen through the quote, ‘She had no maid, and it was the only accomplishment she could boast of. From this we can see that she was not somebody great and she was of the lower class, and since she was not famous or anything, she wanted to be at least good at something, which explains why she ‘braided and twisted' her hair so that she would be recognised for at least something. In addition to this, Sophy hardly had any friends and she was always made ware of her deficiencies either by herself, or by her son who was ashamed and felt embarrassed of the fact that his mother was not a ‘lady'. About Sophy not having that many friends, that was because she was not in the real class she belonged to, and because she was not herself. This can be shown through the quote, ‘Sophy's mileu being a suburb of minor tradesmen and under clerks, and her almost only companions the two servants of her own house'. From this quote it is quite visible that she hardly interacted with anyone, and she was more of a quite and silent person being a ‘lady', and her stepping out of class had caused her be a person who kept contemplating on how her life might have been with Sam Hobson, the man she loved very much. Her son on the other hand was the result of the nature of society and by this, I mean that her son was a real snob who was very selfish and not concerned about anyone else but himself and he did not help his mother a bit as he made her aware of her deficiencies as a ‘lady', and did not love her a inch compared to the affection Sophy felt for her son, Randolph. This can be seen by two quotes, ‘Has, dear mother – not have! This quote is when Sophy uses improper English and when Randolph corrects her, he shouts at her, which is extremely rude, and Sophy does not say anything. Thus, we can see that Sophy was always aware that her main deficiency was in her use of language. The second quote is, ‘his mother, a child of nature herself, had loved in him; he was reducing their compass to a population of a few thousand wealthy and titled people. From this quote one can clearly understand that the love Sophy had for Randolph, her son, was pure, and she loved him with all her heart but he did not care or want to open his heart to her. Also it is evident that as Randolph grew up, he went farther away from his mother, and took the company of famous people as he wanted to establish himself as a real gentleman, and the cause of this was the nature of society that dictated that one would only be recognised for his appearance, class and his behaviour. The company of Randolph is so much in contrast to Sophy's, as she only had the company of ‘two servants. ‘ Thus, it is quite understandable that the sophistication society was looking for ended with Randolph becoming snobbish. This also brings to thought that if Farmer Lodge married Rhoda Brook, Rhoda would have been more or less in the same position as Sophy was, but the difference is that Rhoda is a much stronger character than Sophy is. This can be see through the way she handled Farmer Lodge's absence for Gertrude, and this is because she hid not cry or grieve over his departure, although she was quiet when milking the cows and she had a dream of Gertrude. Also, although she hated Gertrude for stealing Farmer Lodge she did not fail to accept Gertrude for her good qualities when she gave her son a pair of boots to wear and made adjustments with her feelings to be herself. Sophy on the other hand is extremely indecisive, as she does not know if she will stay in the Vicarage after the death of the reverend's first wife. Also, when Sam talks to Sophy about settling down together after the death of the reverend death she finds it so hard to first of all bring up the subject to her son, and when he fusses s much she finds it hard to show him who is the real one with authority and she fails in putting her needs first before her spoilt sons'. She does not seem to understand that her son is getting everything his way, and it is time for her to start to get a few things in her direction. Also society's nature was that appearance was always recognised and the person was respected for the way he or she looked. We see that older men always married younger women and this was common, and this can be seen in ‘The Withered Arm', when Farmer Lodge marries Gertrude, who is extremely young. This can be proven through the quote, ‘Years younger than he they say'. This is the comment one of the workers at the dairy make as they talk and gossip about Farmer Lodge's newly wedded wife. We can see the importance of appearance and this can be seen when Gertrude gets her withered arm, and when she soon feels that she would not have bothered about her arm so much had she not got a notion that she was being loved less by her husband. This can be further porved by the quote, ‘Men think so much of personal appearance'. Through this quote we can understand that she is dejected as her husband doesn't seem to be giving her the same attention as before. This all because society taught men to be aware of appearance and this certainly had its effect on Gertrude. She becomes sad and starts to crave for her husband's love and this can be seen by the quote, ‘and was secretly hoping against hope to win back his heart again by regaining at least some at least some of her personal beauty. This shows the real nature of society as men only married women of good appearance and not for the real reason – love for one another. We also see her sadness in the nature of society as their marriage was not based on love, but on things like appearance and class distinction. This can be seen in the short story, ‘The Withered Arm', where Gertrude feels distressed by the fact that Farmer Lodge is neglecting her because of her left arm which was withered, and this is why she says, ‘Is years of marriage, and only a few months of love. Here it is very evident that she is upset totally by the fact that she is being ignored, and loved less and the only conclusion to this is that, if society did not have men marry women based on their appearance, then the marriage would be real as the men would accept the women for who they were, and marry them even if they were not that good looking. Thus, it is quite obvious that marriage in Victorian times was not really based on love, and that love was totally not the condition or criteria but it was based on minor things like appearance and class distinction in society. This is clear as Farmer Lodge's marriage to Gertrude was not based on love, but her appearance and her position in society and so when her arm became withered, he neglected, ignored and gave her less attention and love compared to the time when her beauty was complete. As in ‘The Son's Veto', Sophy's marriage to Reverend Twycott was also not based on the condition or criteria of love but because she was full of awe and respect for him which amounted to ‘almost veneration'. Thus, both marriages in ‘The Withered Arm' and ‘The Son's Veto' were marriages of convenience and not for love for one another. For the women they were supposed to be frail, gentle, beautiful, and most of all they were supposed to be very young. We also see the life style of the lower class, in ‘The Withered Arm', where Rhoda Brook and the other milk men and women work at the dairy. We can see the simple life the lower class were subjected to and the rough work the lower class were faced with, and this can be seen in the two quotes, ‘It was an eighty – cow dairy, and the troop of milkers, regular and supplementary, were all at work', ‘The hour was six in the evening, and three – fourths of the large, red rectangular animals having been finished off'. From these quotes we can see the immense work these lower class people were faced with, and the fact that it was an ‘eighty – cow dairy', certainly proves that they had a lot of work to do and that there was a lot of milking to be done. This point can be proved by the quote, ‘The hour was six in the evening, and three – fourths of the large, red rectangular animals having been finished off'. Also, we can see that the class a person belonged to, could be notified by the mode of transport they used. This can be seen in ‘The Withered Arm' when Farmer Lodge uses the cart horse to bring his newly wedded wife, Gertrude, home. By using the cart- horse, as his method of transport, he shows clearly that he is of the high class society and by doing this, he not only is recognised for his position but he is also respected for having a wife who is extremely young and good looking. The fact that Farmer Lodge taking a ride in a cart horse was a big thing can be clearly understood by the description of the horse: ‘a handsome new gig, with a lemon coloured body and red wheels. ‘ From this quote it is clearly understood how to understand the class a person was in. Another major aspect of society was their superstitions, and the effects they had on people's character. Superstition is first introduced in ‘The Withered Arm', through the dream Rhoda Brook has, and how society made certain people victim of their superstition can be seen in Rhoda Brook, as she was made a victim of society's beliefs. This can be proven by the quote, ‘She knew that she had been slyly called a witch since her fall'. This quote is when Rhoda Brook begins to wonder if she did have powers after she had a dream of Gertrude where she hurts her and when she finds out that Gertrude really is, she begins to question. Here, we see society's unfairness in judging people wrongly, and making them doubt themselves about who they were. The impact of society on people can be seen when Gertrude finds out that her husband likes her less because of her withered arm, and because of that, she longs and craves for it, and tries many cures and she turns into a person who is superstitious as she is willing to believe any cure just to get her husband's attention and love back once more. Effect of society an its nature can be seen in ‘The Son's Veto', where Sophy's son Randolph, has turned into an entirely different person as he wants to be a pure gentleman, and so he takes the company of famous people, so as to make himself recognised in society and not caring a little about the fact that his mother is all alone. His change in character can be seen in the quote, ‘in her son's eyes – a mother whose mistakes and origin it was his painful lot as a gentleman to blush for. From this quote, it is clear that Sophy's son Randolph, felt that his mother's deficiency in use of language and being a ‘lady' was a flaw in society and he felt ashamed of having a mother who was not a part of society and he felt that this flaw of hers, degraded him in society. Also the dress worn by people indicated their class in society and this can be seen in both short stories. In ‘The Withered Arm', we see Farmer Lodge's clothes as ‘his great golden seals hung like a lord's;' while Gertrude wore ‘a white bonnet and a silver coloured gownd. ‘ From these quotes, one can understand that the way they dressed, was with so much sophistication and this clearly showed their position in society. ‘ In ‘The Son's Veto', we see how the clothes worn displayed one's position in society. This can be seen by the quote, ‘the shape of whose hat and jacket implied that he belonged to a well – known public school. From this quote it is understood that from the clothes Randolph wore, he was acknowledged as a boy who was of the high class and so it could be easily understood that he ‘belonged' to one of the most expensive and famous. Unfairness in society can be seen in the ‘Withered Arm', when people are said to be hung for minor things like, ‘horse stealing, arson, and burglary', and sometimes not for the genuine reason of committing a crime, but so that an example would be set for society so as to not to make the same mistake. This can be proven by the quote, ‘they are obliged to make an example of him, there having been so much destruction of property that way lately. ‘ The unjust nature of society is again seen in ‘The Withered Arm', when Gertrude finds it hard to go to jail so that she could touch the back of the neck of a person hanged because women were not allowed in unless they had the company of a man and this shows the biased nature of society. This can be seen by the quote, ‘but what means she should adopt for obtaining admission to the jail. Thus, all I can finally say is that both stories were tragic in their own way, all because a few characters went a little higher in society. In ‘The Withered Arm', Farmer Lodge went higher in society and left his original wife, Rhoda Brook whom he had a son with, and married Gertrude who died trying to get her arm healed as Farmer Lodge married her because of her appearance and so he was left with neither Gertrude or Rhoda Brook . In ‘The Son's Veto' Sophy married Reverend Twycott because she had respect for him and not because she loved him, although she did really love ‘Sam Hobson', and when the Reverend died, she was left alone and longed for Sam's love but it did not happen because she was indecisive, and as she could not tell her son that she had to move on with her life whether or not he liked it.

Health as a human right Essay

The observed recent advancement in preventive, primary health care, early intervention programs, coordinated health care trials in Australia as well a the population health developments have tried to explore the possibility of changing the current emphasis of health care from the responsive acute care to the more integrated system where the entire whole population is managed for the well being of all (Michael2003). In this concept it is thus generally accepted that much of the illnesses experienced in the communities are preventable or can be managed in a more constructive manner rather than the way it has been up to today. From this view therefore, much of the disabling illnesses need not occur but rather be avoided through the better managed models, lifestyle changes and education programs (Hugh 2003). Health and wellbeing In this modern world that is becoming more and more business oriented, the idea of prevention rather than cure seems to be more appealing due to the quality of life that the individual leads as well as the health outcomes in general (Flowers 2002). A costly health care is avoided when prevention is given the first priority while at the same time helping the community to better understand how to live a more fulfilling life (Keyes 2002). The opposite to prevention would to continue to respond to the emerging health problems at a much more expense and to thus accept that a great amount of GDP would be spent on health care not forgetting that this would degrade the quality of life that the citizen lead. It is in this light therefore that the concept of a better sustainable natural health environment turns out to be even more appealing hence carrying a greater part of the community priorities (Hugh 2003). This calls for a greater consumer participation where the awareness of what supports a healthy/unhealthy lifestyle is taught to all. But though very attractive, one realistically questions if this is a workable context (Michael2003). It has been noted that the social inequality is increasingly characterizing the Australian society and thus the main concern here is that the economy may not be able in the future to support the living standards that the Australians are used to (Richard2002). For the rural communities, the problems seem be doubled. In the rural communities, the wealth that they used to create is diminishing and what used to be the rural production in Australia is now continuously being replaced with a dominating mineral industry. It was only until the early 1980s that agricultural products used to be the single most important source of income for most of the Australian community. The rapid growth of the mineral industry has replaced agriculture to an extent that the earnings from mining nearly double those from agriculture (Hugh 2003). This reduced generation of income in the rural community implies that the distribution of wealth will definitely be affected (Flowers 2002). Some observers have linked a sustainable economy to a sustainable health. Australia is however still not yet a nation that does recognize the great importance of linking the wellbeing of the general community to the economic activities (Smart and Sanson 2005). Though this be the case, the European population could maybe be regarded as the healthiest population as it enjoys a life expectancy of over 80 years (Keyes 2002). Good health and expanding economies are two ideas that are mutually compatible and thus are able to co-exist though this is not yet achieved. From this perception thus, a principle of sustainability in an environmental and economic sense can be generated and be considered to apply both equally to the ideology of shaping the health care system as well as coming up with a preventive approach to the wellbeing of the community (Hugh 2003). The Australian health system has like the education system become institutionalized and thus does no longer serve the community needs (Flowers 2002). In this regard, it is no longer able to respond to the values of as well as aspirations of the people but on the centrally alienates them from the control of their own values and consciousness (Keyes 2002). This has been the case since when the health system are under the control of institutions, then the power of the individual to determine how they exists within these structure is lost and with this kind of loss, such society ills as stigma cannot be avoided (Michael2003). It is within these communities where a strong move towards an economically rational view of capital as well as of service provision is upheld (Richard2002). In this view when the health system is seen as a ‘marketable good’ just any sector such as education, then the view of taking health care to be a public good cannot be put in question. From the WORLD health Organization, health is defined as the state of complete mental, physical, social well being and thus not just the absence of an infirmity or disease (Smart and Sanson 2005). Since most of the modern perspective is financially based, then even the health system is planed from this perspective. It is not possible to attain the vision of a well society while at the same time one is not realistically considering the all elements that would be required to make such a realization a possibility (Hugh 2003). It is within the human rights framework where the guidance of how to respond to the public health challenges is supposed to come from. Wellbeing is often measure interms of satisfaction in life and happiness (Richard2002). Wellbeing is actually about having and maintaining a meaning in life; being able to fulfill our potential and thus feel that our lives are a worthwhile. Our subjective or personal wellbeing is usually determined by our genes, social conditions, personal choices and circumstances as well as the complex manner in which all of these interact with one another (Flowers 2002). By affecting our personality, genes influence our wellbeing. This could thus translate to such traits as neuroticism and extraversion that are all associated with a lower and higher wellbeing respectively (Keyes 2002). Since the genetic influences here are not immutable or fixed, they are frequently shaped by the environment, upbringing, general conditions of life and the personal experiences. In regard to health, most of the characteristic and qualities that are related to the wellbeing of a person are also related to the health of the individual. Thus wellbeing has been regarded as one that does play a central role in enhancing health through the direct effect in such processes as the immune system, physiology, diet, exercise, drinking, smoking and other lifestyle behavior (Michael2003). The question of what cause what then emerges (Hugh 2003). A human right approach Human rights can be considered from two levels. First from the international system of treaties and from a conceptual framework that shapes the action (Richard2002). In Australia, the Consumers Health Forum of Australia (CHF) is what is concerned with the voicing the concerns of health consumers. Being an independent non-governmental organization it mainly shapes the Australian health system by having the consumers involved in the health policies (Smart and Sanson 2005). If the health sector and the wellbeing of the citizens is taken from a wider view, then it is possible to invest more resources in a more effective manner so as to optimize these benefits to the whole community (Flowers 2002). Adopting this concept would require the identification of some of the key elements that would encompass a healthy society from which it would be expected that health individuals would live in. some of these concepts include but are not limited to; 1. recognizing the impact and role of work in the wellbeing of the individuals. 2. enhancing more consumer participation and improving community education. 3. Coming up with policies that will enhance a healthy sustainable environment both social and natural. 4. ecognizing the major role that the lifestyle choice plays in enhancing the community as well as individuals wellbeing. 5. implementing early prevention and intervention programs in a more extensive manner rather than having to wait to have endpoint interventions. 6. promoting the idea of having to a lead a qualitative kind of life as opposed to the quantitative view. Such a approach to a sustainable health system will be a gradual process. Many of the factors that contribute to the well being of the individual are interrelated (Michael2003). The relationship between these factors are in most cases reciprocal. A good example is the observation that happier people are more likely than the depressed sad families to do better work, have more friends, and even earn higher income. The interrelation of these factors with well being are quite clear. As work offer purpose in life, unemployment is associated with a loss of income. Other factors such as being religious offer a good flow of social connections, sense of purpose, spiritual support and a moral code that eventually sums up to the wellbeing of the person (Hugh 2003). The lack of one of these factors sometime is compensated though partly by the presence of the other. It has been estimated that an average Australian rates their satisfaction and general happiness to about 75 per cent. Of late, the Australian government has stated that a growing strong economy is their main responsibility and goal. Economic growth has in the past been associated with the indicators of better health, wellbeing and a high quality of life. In this regard, it is globally accepted that money matters most as it does help people to meet their basic needs (Flowers 2002). The link between health, law and human rights. Health systems in all sectors of life can be analyzed for the impact they have on equality, human dignity and freedom as well as how effective they are in treating or preventing disease or ill health (Smart and Sanson 2005). The close association that is there between law and health is rarely fully appreciated by the health care providers (Hugh 2003). The law and in particular that which is mainly concerned with the provision of human rights should be well understood by the health care providers who are usually reluctant to engage in it so as to be better placed to improve health care quality (Michael2003). If this is to be achieved then the following need to be achieved; 1. Ensure that all persons are empowered as well as informed to make responsible decisions regarding medical care and treatment on the basis of a genuinely informed consent. 2. Take all appropriate administrative and legislative measures to ensure that all people enjoy the right of attaining the highest possible health standard without any form of discrimination. 3. take all administrative measures to ensure that access to healthcare facilities is made possible to all persons (Flowers 2002). Conclusion Just like the wider economic system, health care is increasingly becoming concerned with prevention, sustainability, early intervention as well as the long-term management of the wellbeing of its citizens. This would imply having to move health care issues beyond the reactionary crisis that is mainly based on acute care model and thus in its place have a more integrated program that is based on preventive care. This can be accomplished on the recognition that ‘health’ is usually a function of various environmental and social variables. To prevent the health care from collapsing in the future due to the heavy weight of acute care needs, health professional must become more involved in the education, community care, self-management, prevention as well enhance the consumer empowerment processes. It is worth noting much of the illnesses today in the health sector such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes and the respiratory diseases are all preventable or manageable if not totally preventable and thus it is within the realistic aim to lessen the burden.

Impact of Structural Adjustment on Economic Performance

Impact of Structural Adjustment on Economic Performance Free Online Research Papers THE IMPACT OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT ON ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE (CONTROL GROUP BEFORE AND AFTER ANALYSES) By Misbah Nosheen PhD scholar: Federal Urdu University of Arts Science Technology Islamabad Lecturer in Economics: International Islamic University Islamabad. Javed Iqbal PhD scholar: Federal Urdu University of Arts Science Technology Islamabad Research Officer: Economic Affair Division (EAD) Islamabad ABSTRACT Are adjustment policies helpful or hamper growth? This paper presents data on economic performance (aggregate and sectoral growth, inflation, investment and external account) for 8 countries. The data are classified on an annual basis according to the country’s policy stance in that year: weak reformers, moderate reformers and strong reformers. This approach allows both control-group and before and after analyses. The evidence suggests three hypotheses. First, countries with weak reforms have performed betterly in comparison with those that have moved to greater market orientation. Countries ranked with a policy score of 1 perform well on all indicators, other than investment growth and export growth, than those with scores of 3. Second, economic performance does not differ greatly between moderate and strong ones. But in case of inflation there is a significant difference between group 2 and group 3. The third hypothesis follows from noting that there is little difference in agricultural growth, manufacturing growth and overall growth among 3 groups. It is surprising that manufacturing growth is greater in case of weak reforms. New prescriptive ideas on reforms have tended to be realistic, emphasizing that reforms need to be modified to country circumstances. 1. INTRODUCTION During the 1990s there were intense changes in the national policy environment in many less developed countries. These changes were mainly brought about within the framework of structural adjustment programmes guided by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The process began in early 1980s with the Bank structural adjustment loans. Yet there is a question as to the economic impact of these policies: specifically do they support or hinder growth as compared with the pre reform situation? To this end, paper presents evidence from 8 developing countries. As explained earlier data were collected on macro-economic variables and classified on an annual basis according to the country’s policy stance in that particular year. The focus of this paper is on isolating the economic impact of economic reform. These data were used for control group comparisons and to do before and after analysis. Section 2 begins with an overview of policy reform in developing countries before moving in Section 3 to a presentation of the results dealing with overall growth, inflation, investment and sectoral growth in agriculture and manufacturing. Section 4 concludes on the suitable design of adjustment. 2. POLICY REFORM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: AN OVERVIEW The term adjustment in the discussion of international development agencies refers to a set of economic reforms that nudge the economy toward market based development. Specifically they aim to achieve internal and external balance by reduction of the fiscal and trade deficits, trade liberalization and export expansions as opposed to import substitutions. During the last more than two decades almost all developing countries have taken steps toward economic liberalization achieving the stated policy objectives. But these changes have resulted in different outcomes. It is instructive in this context to refer to an analysis of six African countries, Engberg-Pedersen et al. (1996) who distinguish three stages of adjustment: (1) stabilisation, agricultural price reform and some trade liberalisation; (2) internal trade liberalisation, investment promotion and social dimensions of adjustment; and (3) public sector reform, beginning with the banking sector and civil service, and social expend iture rationalisation. The experience of the 8 countries shows that there are divergences in the experiences of economic policy reforms with respect to the pre assigned target variables. The main push for reforms has begun at different times in these countries; but all of them have undertaken market based reforms during the last more than two and a half of decades. It is certainly the case that tariff reforms and agricultural price liberalization have been spearheaded the reforms; along with some change in exchange rate policy. Experience with stabilisation has not so uniform for instance, stablisation in many cases has been attempted at the outset of adjustment but not always successfully. Most frequently, it has been turned out to be more of a problem than a solution of the problem. Indeed, this unpleasant experience has forced the IMF to deemphasize this aspect to spearhead structural reforms. It is certainly the case that privatisation and public sector reform come at the tail end of the reforms and ha ve not been carried out in all countries (especially public sector reform). The practice of trade liberalization and market-oriented economic reform that had launched in many developing countries in early 1980s intensified in the 1990s. The reform undertaken varied in ownership and contents in different countries. The reforming countries can be divided into three groups. The first group consists of a number of countries in East Asia which continued their own dynamic industrial and trade policies initiated in 1960s. The second group includes a large number of countries, mostly in Africa and Asia, which have gone through the reform programmes designed and dictated by the IFIs. The third group comprises a number of Latin American countries that undertook economic reform since early 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions. Nevertheless, in 1990s they intensified the reform process without having been necessarily under pressure of those institutions in all cases. The contents and philosophy of their reform programmes were, howeve r, similar to those designed by the international financial institutions which in turn have been referred to as the â€Å"Washington Consensus† since the early 1990s. Universal and uniform trade liberalization was a part of the Washington Consensus. The term Universal implies that all developing countries are to follow the same trade policy regime i.e they are required to liberalize trade and capital flows irrespective of their levels of development and industrial capacities. The term Uniform implies that all sectors and industries are to be subject to the same tariff rates i.e, preferably a zero rate, or a very low rate. Apart from trade liberalization, such reform programmes included mainly: capital account liberalization, devaluation at the early stages of reform to compensate for trade liberalization, fiscal and financial reform through contractionary macroeconomic policies such as budget cuts, increase in interest rates and privatization. As for the timing of reform, there seems to be something of a regional pattern to it, although with significant exceptions. Asian countries began reform earlier (Sri Lanka in 1977, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan relaxed controls somewhat in the 1980s, although in all cases more intensive reform began in 1991). â€Å"Policy scores† have been based on the degree of reform of the exchange rate, trade, price policy, finance, fiscal policy, private sector development, privatization and public sector undertaking by different countries. The score 1 is corresponding to weak reform, 2 to moderate reform and 3 to strong reform for each country. Figure 1 shows the average score across the 8 countries since 1980, giving a strong graphical evidence of the world trend towards reform. There has been a continuous increase in the average policy score, with a sharp incline in 1990 and 1991, when several countries intensified their reform efforts. It may be noted that a higher score means that it has become more market oriented; whether or not it has assured better growth and lower poverty remains to be analyzed in the present study. Figure: 1 Average Policy Score for 8 Countries Table: 1 Aid Per Capita ($ Per Person) by Policy Score (1980-2007) 1 2 3 Mean 10.204 8.739 8.239 Median 10.449 2.0741 3.787 Standard deviation 6.155 11.469 11.841 No of observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author Table: 2 Before and After Comparisons of Aid Per Capita ($ Per Person) (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina 2.061 1.598 1.305 3.839 2.867 2.119 Bangladesh 15.331 15.499 2.679 10.941 10.204 3.012 Brazil 1.317 1.282 0.477 1.068 1.131 0.736 Chile -0.431 -0.639 0.499 6.527 7.075 3.965 India 2.353 2.277 0.407 1.651 1.609 0.677 Pakistan 10.272 9.645 2.350 8.826 7.999 3.132 Sri Lanka 31.659 29.560 5.563 33.673 30.536 17.483 Venezuela 0.865 0.884 0.194 2.035 1.854 0.796 Source: Calculated by author This section will often compare indicators for countries with different policy scores. Table 1 provides the example of aid per capita given to the sample countries. Aid per capita dealings the net official development assistance (net of repayment of principal) available per person in each country receiving foreign aid. Data are specified in current U.S. dollars per person . The averages (both mean and median) shown here have been calculated across all available observations, so a country can enter the data set up to 28 times (the data cover 1980-2007) though, of course, it will appear in a different column depending on its policy score for that year. It may be surprising that average aid is higher for 1 than for 2 and 3. This result is partly explained by the fact that bilateral conditionality came in during the 1980s, so that poor performers could still get high aid in the early part of the decade. But once conditionality started, many of the home grown reform efforts were not rewarded by the international community. Aid flows only resumed once an International Financial Institution (IFI)-backed programme was started. Table 2 shows the before and after analysis of aid per capita. It presents more or less the same picture as shown by table 1. 3. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ADJUSTMENT POLICIES BY KEY VARIABLES 3.1 Overview Table 3 presents a summary of the main results from the control group analyses, which are explored in more detail below. I have suggested three hypotheses. First, countries with weak reforms have performed better in comparison with those that have moved to greater market orientation. As compare to countries with score of 3, than with a policy score of 1 perform well on all indicators, other than investment growth and export growth. Second, economic performance does not differ greatly between moderate reformers (score 2) and strong reformers (within score of 1) ones. But in case of inflation there is a significant difference between group 2 and group 3. This finding is partly explained by the fact that some countries which have carried out quite far-reaching reforms have seen only insignificant impact on their growth rates but a greater impact on their inflation. The third hypothesis follows from noting that there is not much difference in agricultural growth, manufacturing growth and overall growth among 3 groups. It is not surprising but may be important that manufacturing growth is greater in case of weak reforms. Table: 3 Summary of Control Group Analysis by Types of Reformers (1980-2007)(Median Scores) 1 2 3 Growth 5.181 4.141 5.123 Inflation 26.536 10.726 93.801 Investment rate 18.482 21.094 21,656 Export growth 3.601 5.203 7.832 Agricultural growth 3.658 2.609 3,167 Manufacturing growth 7.033 4.661 5.259 Source: Calculated by author 3.2 Growth The data presented in Table 3 show that growth performance has been weaker the greater the degree of reform in the control countries. Moreover, the results are the same. Countries with policy score 3 perform significantly better than moderate reformers: the t-statistic for the difference in means between 3 and 2 is 2.537 and that for 3 and 1 is 0.721. So there is no significant difference in growth performance between weak and strong reformers. Table: 4 Control Group Analysis of Real GDP Growth by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean 5.344 2.810 4.591 Median 5.181 4.141 5.123 Standard deviation 2.218 4.411 4.467 No of Observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author The data in Tables 3 and 4 are simple control group comparisons; we are comparing various degrees of adjustment (between different countries and different periods for the same country) without any reference to other factors. Table 5 presents a before-and-after analysis, which does control for country specific, but not other, factors. Chile is experiencing stronger growth with reform. Argentina and Venezuela have a moderate reforme growth. Brazil has declined in growth (relatively). The South Asian countries Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have all maintained comparable growth rates regardless of policy stance; indeed they are lower in the case of Pakistan. In case of India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh it has improved upon with reforms. Thus it seems that some countries have experienced growth with reform, whereas others have not. Table: 5 Before and After Growth Performance (Growth of Real GDP per Annum) (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina 0.026 2.212 5.346 4.076 5.836 7.639 Bangladesh 3.465 3.732 1.444 5.124 5.228 0.776 Brazil 2.954 3.600 5.042 2.207 2.439 2.357 Chile 1.350 4.737 8.127 6.116 6.352 2.860 India 5.887 5.809 1.739 6.599 7.129 2.681 Pakistan 6.646 6.538 1.665 4.751 4.847 2.377 Sri Lanka 4.350 4.814 1.553 4.946 5.362 1.918 Venezuela 0.770 0.193 3.937 2.962 3.687 7.462 Source: Calculated by author 3.3 Inflation Stabilisation is considered a pre-requisite for growth, as high levels of inflation create uncertainty by confusing price signals. An important focus of the stabilization programme is to bring the rate of inflation under check. Most studies find that inflation has been brought down when stabilisation has been pursued. As shown in Table 3, this view is not supposed by the experience of our sample of 8 countries. Median inflation in strong reforming countries is more than three times greater than that in weak reforming ones and it is more than two times in weak reforms as compared with moderate reform ones. The region of Latin America has a history of fiscal wastefulness, in which deficits were covered by printing money resulting in high inflation, and in extreme cases, hyperinflation or by tapping financial markets, leading to exploding debt ratios, often ending in debt crises. Despite a fall in aid during the 1990s, inflation in Bangladesh dropped from double to single digits because of a reduction in the budget deficit resulting from a rise in tax revenue and increased foreign financing. First, there was a devaluation of the exchange rate, which was then fixed, and wage and price controls were maintained in order to ‘break inflationary expectations’. Increases in some prices however, led to a gradual appreciation and overvaluation. In the wake of further devaluation in 1993 inflation increased and can be seen to have followed closely the rate of nominal devaluation. Table 6 represents the control group analysis of inflation. Results show that inflation has been higher as the degrees of reform proceed. Table 7 shows completely the sane picture. Table: 6 Control Group Analysis of Inflation (CPI) by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean 27.208 18.307 89.877 Median 26.536 10.726 93.802 Standard deviation 8.025 19.815 51.690 No of Observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author Table: 7 Before and After Comparisons of Inflation [CPI (2000=100)] (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina 0.005 0.000 0.011 103.939 100.670 42.792 Bangladesh 41.543 41.598 12.400 97.840 97.839 26.100 Brazil 0.000 0.000 0.000 81.179 89.091 58.763 Chile 9.216 8.427 2.572 74.811 83.534 34.525 India 29.164 28.084 7.864 91.446 96.145 26.567 Pakistan 30.259 29.890 6.204 92.915 95.816 29.140 Sri Lanka 23.409 22.098 8.131 101.405 94.183 41.592 Venezuela 0.577 0.510 0.228 96.141 69.638 97.311 Source: Calculated by author Table 7 presents before and after comparisons of inflation. It shows that all the sampling countries have experienced higher inflation after reforms. In case of Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela) the condition is severe. 3.4 Investment The role of investment in promoting economic growth has received considerable attention in many countries around the world. The link between investment and growth is well established. The early Domar-Harrod models specified investment as the key to promoting economic growth. The data from the countries studied shows that the investment rate gets higher with increased degrees of reforms. Based on both the mean and the median, the investment rate appears to be about 19 per cent in weak reformers and a little over 21 per cent in moderate reformers and this difference is insignificant as t value is 1.517. But the difference between weak and strong reformers is significant with t value 2.445. Table 9 shows a really very mixed picture comparing before and after reforms. Bangladesh, Chile and India have significantly improved their investment growth with reforms. Argentina, Sri Lanka and Venezuela have declined in their investment growth as reform process moves on. Brazil has a slight impro vement while Pakistan works with almost same investment rate from weak to strong reform process. Table: 8 Simple Control group comparisons for investment rate (Per cent of GNP) by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean 19.234 20.903 21.901 Median 18.482 21.094 21.656 Standard deviation 4.032 4.164 4.532 No of observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author Table: 9 Before and after comparisons of investment rate (per cent of GNP) (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina 20.422 19.964 2.536 18.118 18.014 3.875 Bangladesh 16.536 16.701 0.921 21.541 22.193 2.819 Brazil 20.363 21.094 2.829 21.047 21.118 1.268 Chile 15.706 13.677 5.811 23.368 22.991 2.682 India 22.222 22.410 1.743 26.544 24.777 5.438 Pakistan 18.698 18.774 0.383 17.920 17.375 1.401 Sri Lanka 25.749 23.660 4.005 25.307 25.136 2.527 Venezuela 22.430 24.425 5.258 21.246 21.485 5.817 Source: Calculated by author 3.5 External Account and Debt Trade liberalisation measures cover exchange rate liberalisation (usually devaluation), the reform of the system of distributing foreign exchange, liberalisation of domestic factor markets, import liberalisation and moves from non-tariff restrictions towards tariffs. All these are designed to create incentives by improving the profitability of tradables relative to non-tradables, thus rewarding exporters and punishing importers. Caballero and Pangeas (2006) calculate that for a country like Chile, with good fundamentals, hedging the probability of suffering a sudden stop the debt flow can be equivalent to a reduction in the stock of debt of 10 percentage points of GDP. However, IDB (2007) shows that the benefit of debt reduction varies by country, depending on the current stock of debt and the quality of policies and institutions. They show recent empirical estimates that have found a non-linear relationship between external debt levels and growth levels of debt appear to be beneficial for growth up to a point, and then the correlation turns negative. The problem is that estimates for this turning point range between 10 and 60% of GDP. In addition, Imbs and Ranciere (2005) find that the threshold level at which debt becomes negative for growth is higher for countries with better institutions. To make an optimistic calculation, assume that Latin American countries are in the negative coefficient territory of the above non-linear relationship between debt and growth, so reducing debt would be beneficial – a not too unreasonable assumption, given an average level of external debt to GDP of almost 50% in 2004, excluding Argentina and Nicaragua that were above 110%. Following IDB (2007), this would mean that a 10 percentage point reduction in the debt / GDP ratio could generate a growth benefit of around 0.8 percentage points per year. However, the shakiness of this estimate cannot be stressed enough (Miguel Braun, 2007). Table: 10 Control Group Analysis of Current Account Deficit (As percentage of GDP) by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean -2.318 -2.999 -1.594 Median -2.428 -2.791 -2.424 Standard deviation 1.337 1.984 3.457 No of Observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author Table: 11 Before and After Comparisons of Current Account Deficit (As percentage of GDP) (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina -3.244 -2.791 1.829 -0.105 -1.703 4.068 Bangladesh -2.457 -2.428 1.502 -0.237 -0.080 1.040 Brazil -2.267 -1.981 2.600 -1.084 -0.356 2.403 Chile -9.548 -9.466 3.446 -2.357 -1.604 2.433 India -1.667 -1.822 0.549 0.037 -0.685 1.657 Pakistan -2.855 -3.331 1.261 -1.296 -2.742 3.731 Sri Lanka -7.321 -6.511 4.319 -3.443 -3.229 2.057 Venezuela 1.075 5.298 6.657 6.629 5.128 7.198 Source: Calculated by author Analysis of the external account is made difficult by the fact that reform efforts are often accompanied by an aid inflow, which necessarily worsens the current account. Nonetheless, we find a significant improvement in the current accounts of reforming countries compared to weak reformers. These results suggest that there may have been some improvement in exports and this is indeed shown by data on export performance (Tables 12 and 13). Table: 12 Simple Control group comparisons for Export Growth by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean 6.229 5.886 8.281 Median 3.601 5.204 7.832 Standard deviation 10.026 10.618 7.802 No of observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author Table: 13 Before and after real export growth (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina 2.725 2.583 9.524 8.246 7.647 7.088 Bangladesh 7.167 7.899 9.510 11.655 13.222 8.506 Brazil 11.088 14.332 12.912 8.160 9.250 5.626 Chile 3.476 4.716 8.498 8.801 8.148 3.512 India 5.933 7.250 6.108 13.251 13.782 9.987 Pakistan 9.789 11.990 13.201 7.765 7.573 11.317 Sri Lanka 5.954 4.999 3.359 6.638 6.263 5.307 Venezuela -0.850 -3.101 10.175 2.664 5.754 8.857 Source: Calculated by author Exports analysis of average real export growth across the 8 countries since 1980 given in Table 12 shows that export growth performance is significantly stronger the greater the degree of reform across the sample as a whole. The t-statistic at the 20 per cent level for the difference in means between 2 and 3 is 1.75 but that for 1 and 2 is 0.123. The country-specific comparisons of export growth in periods of before and after comparisions, gives a clear picture. For 6 of the countries (Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, India, Sri Lanka and Venezuela) export growth appears to be greater during periods of after reform than during before reform. Indias main success in trade reform has been in the area of tariffs. In 1990-91, the unweighted average tariff was 125 per cent. That figure came down to 71 percent in 1993-94. The peak tariff rate in 1990 was an unbelievably high 355 percent. The peak rate in 1993-94 came down to 85 per cent. In 1995 the highest rate of tariff was further reduced t o 50 percent and it was only 18 percent in 2004. Moreover Export promotion schemes are also being pursued with more than usual vigor. Only Brazil and Pakistan exhibit Weak export growth rates during periods of strong reform than when reform is not being adopted. A main argument of this review is that the control regime resulted in bad performance, but while the evidence that market-based reform is the best alternative is sufficient, this is so in relation to export performance. Control group analyses e.g. Adjustment in Africa (World Bank 1994) and Kirkpatrick and Weiss (1995) find that countries engaging in macro-economic policy reform, and in particular trade liberalisation, experience faster growth in real exports. And these simple control-group analyses can in fact adequately control for other factors, and so the results can clearly demonstrate the positive impact of reforms. The case studies also find positive effects. Husain and Faruqee (1994) report strong export growth in the case studies in the companion volume, despite declining terms of trade, and all but Burundi have achieved some success in diversification. On the other hand, Sahn et al. (1994) find mixed results from the case studies where reforms have been implemented. On the other hand the picture is far less positive with respect to debt, the debt burden having increased in many countries. Large aid inflows have tended to increase the debt burden rather than reduce it; although bilateral aid is virtually all grant aid, the substantial inflows from the international financial institutions are not. Table 14 shows that the total debt burden has risen in all countries. Table: 14 Total long-term debt (Period average, US$ billions) 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 2000-04 2005-06 Argentina 27.8992 48.2506 52.7302 91.8722 122.336 78.28317 Bangladesh 4.20178 8.40382 12.926 14.9476 16.7164 18.09767 Brazil 74.053 97.0186 104.9232 170.548 189.608 158.4533 Chile 13.5523 16.7214 15.7376 23.9212 34.4018 38.785 India 21.941 46.7864 81.2144 89.6896 103.394 116.935 Pakistan 9.2423 12.9838 19.9136 27.2814 30.619 30.72017 Sri Lanka 1.83248 3.8743 5.9005 7.71406 8.90006 10.27893 Venezuela 19.54 29.6404 29.4056 31.5568 30.751 34.592 Source: World Development Indicators 4 Economic Impact of Adjustment Policies: By Key Sectors 4.1 Agricultural Supply Response Economic performance at the sectoral level, particularly in agriculture and industry, is crucial to success of the economy in coping with changing economic circumstances brought about by macro-economic reform. There is also a gender aspect to this analysis since in many low-income countries, particularly in South Asia, women are responsible for the vast majority of agricultural labour. The impact of adjustment policies on agriculture is therefore an issue of great importance for gender relations and a proper analysis and appreciation of gender relations should inform the design of agricultural policy. Historically, developing countries have tended to tax their agricultural sectors through trade and pricing policies, often to keep food prices low for the benefit of the urban population and to generate export tax revenue. Schiff and Valdes (1992) have shown that these policies have resulted in a slowdown in agricultural sector growth and in overall economic growth, with industrial and macro-economic policies often having a greater impact than more direct, sector-specific measures. Table: 15 Average growth of real agricultural value added by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean 3.894 2.658 3.339 Median 3.658 2.608 3.166 Standard deviation 4.171 4.707 4.179 No of Observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author One of the objectives behind adjustment is to reduce the level of indirect taxation of agriculture through trade liberalisation and removing price controls. The success or failure of orthodox adjustment programmes could be said to center on the supply response of agriculture to adjustment measures given the significance of agriculture in these economies for exports, domestic food supply and hence for inflation. Measures such as currency devaluation, reduced export taxes and lower input prices (through reduced domestic industrial protection, although a countervailing effect can come from the removal of subsidies) have attempted to increase the relative prices and profitability of agricultural and other tradable goods. Table 15 gives an analysis of average growth of real agricultural value added across the countries. From the results shown, it is evident that there is no significant difference in growth rates between weak reform, moderate and strong reform periods. Looking at the country specific results in Table 16 Brazil, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and, Venezuela exhibit strongest growth rates in real agricultural value added during periods of before reform. For Argentina, Bangladesh and Chile the strongest the reform implementation the greatest the rate of growth. Table: 16 Before and after comparisons of growth of real agricultural value added (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina 0.973 0.167 4.068 3.052 4.097 4.846 Bangladesh 2.322 1.013 3.018 2.891 2.530 1.932 Brazil 4.175 3.370 7.055 3.263 4.100 2.763 Chile 2.292 3.786 4.110 5.286 6.248 4.944 India 4.396 1.483 5.801 2.698 2.448 4.551 Pakistan 4.303 4.405 3.841 3.901 4.567 4.170 Sri Lanka 2.925 2.629 4.348 1.339 1.900 2.608 Venezuela 3.631 3.976 3.948 2.715 2.022 5.282 Source: Calculated by author 4.2 Manufacturing Performance under Adjustment Pre-adjustment policies gave support to a heavily protected manufacturing sector, much of which was in state hands, through heavy tariffs, sometimes so high as to allow the firm a domestic monopoly, and both direct and implicit subsidies, such as receiving foreign exchange allocations at overvalued exchange rates. In general, state-owned firms faced a soft budget constraint. As adjustment is about achieving a more efficient allocation of resources, the process should entail moving resources out of such activities, i.e. a reduction of output and employment. Table: 17 Control group comparison of policy impact on manufacturing growth by Type of Reformers (1980 to 2007) 1 2 3 Mean 6.436 3.266 18462. Median 7.033 4.662 5.258 Standard deviation 3.727 6.385 226066.5 No of Observations 19 55 150 Source: Calculated by author The results of the analysis are presented in Tables 17 and 18. Table 17 reports the simple mean and median values of manufacturing growth in the countries using the classification by policy episodes described earlier. At first glance these results appear to lend support to the view that market-based reforms in fact have has a negative impact on manufacturing growth. A more mixed picture emerges from the country-level before and after analysis in Table 18. Countries with a positive message: Bangladesh (where growth has come from liberalization permitting rapid growth in textiles, rather than successful restructuring of the old state owned sector), Sri Lanka be added to this list, having had high growth throughout the period, which may be characterised by an increasingly liberal regime. It is important that the period under study is characterized by widespread trade and financial reforms in Latin America, to which the manufacturing sector responded by promoting cost reduction strategies in order to maintain some degree of competitiveness. These strategies in most cases involved cuts in employment levels, and this can cause an upward bias in the levels of labor productivity. Second, it is important to stress that there is a large degree of heterogeneity in the national experiences across the countries in the sample. In most of the cases, the shares of manufactures in GDP and exports have declined over the last two decades, in favor of agriculture (Argentina) or mining/oil (Venezuela). In some countries the patterns of specialization remained fairly stable. Table: 18 Before and After Comparisons of Manufacturing Growth (1980-2007) Country Before reforms After reforms Mean Median Stand Dev Mean Median Stand Dev Argentina -1.144 -2.685 7.593 2.758 4.645 8.307 Bangladesh 4.667 4.373 2.985 10.941 10.204 3.012 Brazil 1.783 0.946 7.451 145724.200 1.700 635193.000 Chile 0.127 3.096 12.132 4.958 5.241 3.565 India 6.942 6.959 3.060 1.651 1.609 0.677 Pakistan 8.400 7.885 2.649 8.826 7.999 3.132 Sri Lanka 5.714 5.184 3.432 33.673 30.536 17.483 Venezuela 2.323 3.432 3.998 2.035 1.854 0.796 Source: Calculated by author In several countries (Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) industrial growth has been partly based on the creation of new enterprises in more labor intensive sectors rather than successful restructuring of existing enterprises, though there has been some of that in the Sri Lankan case. 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS In this paper market-oriented policy reform has taken place in the 8 countries under consideration. Have these changes had beneficial effects on economic performance is the question to be investigated in this paper? For a very large number of indicators reviewed, performance has been better in reforming economies in some cases while it is unsatisfactory in others. Although there are deficiencies in both control-group and before and after analysis, these results are both strong and consistent, suggesting that there is something going on here. But care must be exercised in deciding what that something is. This paper has a few important findings to report. First, in spite of problems of implementation, many less developed countries of South Asia and Latin America have undertaken significant policy reforms during the 1990s, particularly trade liberalization, pricing and marketing reform, and the creation of a policy regime favorable to foreign direct investment. The national policy environment at the end of the 1990s in many less developed countries is thus very different from maintaining a given level of net transfers to a country involved high transaction costs associated with the continual negotiation of the proportion of scheduled debt payments to be serviced from the country’s own resources that at the end of the 1980s. It has moved decisively in the direction of economic liberalization. Second the impact of economic reforms in South Asia on the policy environment presents a mixed picture. The industrial and trade policy reforms have gone far, though they need to be supplemented by labor market reforms which are a critical missing link. The logic of liberalization also needs to be extended to agriculture, where numerous restrictions remain in place. Reforms aimed at encouraging private investment in infrastructure have worked in some areas but not in others. The complexity of the problems in this area has been underestimated, especially in the power sector. This has now been recognized and policies are being reshaped accordingly. Progress has been made in several areas of financial sector reforms, though some of the critical issues relating to government ownership of the banks remain to be addressed. However, the outcome in the fiscal area shows a worse situation at the date than at the start. Thirdly, our results would also support a case for more extensive structural and institutional reforms that is, for broadening the scope of reform because pushing macroeconomic reforms to the levels of performance achieved in the faster- growing. The policy debates triggered by the crises and lagging economic performance in Latin America have not produced a clear â€Å"winner,† much less a new consensus. In this regard, they differ from the debates of the 1980s, which led to the â€Å"Washington consensus,† a set of policy prescriptions that was widely supported by policymakers and economists both in the region and outside. Most economists and policymakers including many that continue to believe that stabilization and liberalization were the right policy prescriptions in the 1980s and early 1990s will now take the view that the â€Å"Washington consensus† agenda needs to be either augmented or replaced. Finally, new prescriptive ideas on reforms have tended to be realistic, emphasizing that reforms need to be modified to country circumstances. For example, the work on â€Å"Politics of Policies† sponsored by the Inter-American Development Bank starts with the premise that weak institutions are a common problem in Latin America, but argues that the solutions might be quite different across countries, depending on the â€Å"political game† that is currently in place. 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